Although vitamin E treatment was not superior to placebo in terms of ALT level reduction, histological hepatocellular ballooning was shown to be improved under vitamin E treatment in children with biopsy-proven NASH [28]

Although vitamin E treatment was not superior to placebo in terms of ALT level reduction, histological hepatocellular ballooning was shown to be improved under vitamin E treatment in children with biopsy-proven NASH [28]. Metformin SEL10 Metformin, an insulin-sensitizing agent, lowers hepatic glucose production and promotes glucose uptake in muscles. genetic background and environmental factors contribute to NAFLD development. A more complete understanding of the pathogenesis may aid in developing non-invasive diagnostic tools and identifying new therapeutic targets. Liver biopsy currently remains the gold standard for NAFLD diagnosis and staging. Although lifestyle and diet modifications are key in ONC212 NAFLD treatment, the development of new pharmacological therapies is crucial for patients who are unresponsive to first-line therapy. non-alcoholic steatohepatitis) The guts critical role in NAFLD pathogenesis has recently been given consideration. In NAFLD, an alteration of gut microbiota and enhanced gut permeability increase liver exposure to gut-derived bacterial products, such as lipopolysaccharides. These products stimulate innate immune receptors (Toll-like receptors), which leads to activation of the signalling pathways ONC212 involved in liver inflammation and fibrogenesis [22]. Hepatic stellate cells are considered the main extracellular matrix-producing cells during NASH development. However, the hepatic progenitor cell compartment of the liver has recently been shown to be expanded in children with NAFLD. Hepatic progenitor cell activation appears to play a role in liver response to oxidative stress and is correlated with fibrosis and NASH progression [43]. Adipocytokines, including adiponectin, leptin, resistin, and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), also appear to be involved in the progression of simple steatosis to NASH. Adipocytes or inflammatory cells infiltrating the adipose tissue in insulin resistance conditions are responsible for adipocytokine secretion. Leptin may activate hepatic stellate cells and suppress their apoptosis. The expansion of adipose tissue, and particularly that of visceral fat, is associated with a decrease in the release of insulin-sensitizing and anti-inflammatory cytokines and an increase in the release of pro-inflammatory molecules [34]. TNF-alpha and IL-6 levels are often elevated in the liver and blood of NASH patients. These cytokines are involved in Kupffer cell recruitment and activation, as well as in hepatic stellate cell activation in myofibroblasts [48]. To summarize, NAFLD results from crosstalk between multiple organs, including adipose tissue, the pancreas, gut, and liver. Diagnosis of NAFLD/NASH NAFLD is often diagnosed in asymptomatic patients, with unexplained increased serum aminotransferase or gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase values detected during routine check-ups. However, some patients may suffer from abdominal pain; hepatomegaly may be present, whereas splenomegaly is rare. For diagnosing NAFLD, it is necessary to eliminate other liver disease etiologies, such as hepatitis B and C, autoimmune hepatitis, drug-induced liver injury, Wilsons disease, alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency, inborn errors of fatty acid or carnitine metabolism, peroxisomal disorders, lysosomal storage disorders, and cystic fibrosis. However, positive serum autoantibodies (antinuclear and anti-SMA) are often present in NAFLD pediatric patients, in the absence of autoimmune hepatitis. Their clinical significance remains unclear [3]. Indirect markers Enhanced ALT levels are common among pediatric patients with NAFLD [51]. Aminotransferase levels may range from normal to four to six times the upper limit of normal. Mild aminotransferase elevation is usually observed in NAFLD patients (1.5C2 times the upper limit of normal) [8]. However, circulating aminotransferases levels are frequently normal in children with NAFLD ONC212 and NASH. Furthermore, normal aminotransferase levels do not exclude possible fibrosis or cirrhosis. Together with fibrosis progression and steatosis reduction, aminotransferase levels may decrease. Therefore, this test is not representative of NAFLD severity. Moreover, dietary habits and hyperalimentation may impact on serum aminotransferase levels [24]. Lipid profiles, fasting glucose, and insulin levels should be evaluated in children with NAFLD, who often present with several metabolic syndrome components [3]. Imaging techniques Ultrasonography (US) is the most common imaging modality for fatty liver detection. US has several advantages, such as its relatively low cost and wide availability. A recent study demonstrated liver US efficacy for quantifying steatosis in children. A strong correlation between US steatosis scores and steatosis severity on liver biopsy was observed [62]. However, US sensitivity decreases.